CHAPTER 2 Bias: Reading between the Lines – Good Reasoning Matters A Constructive Approach to Critical Thinking test bank

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CHAPTER 2
Bias: Reading between the Lines

Multiple Choice Questions

1. What do we typically mean when we say that an arguer has a bias?
a) That one of their legs is shorter than the other, so they are always leaning
b) That they unfairly favour a particular point of view
c) That they strongly hold a particular opinion
d) That there are certain words that the arguer tends to use frequently
e) None of the above

2. Why does confirmation bias occur?
a) Confirmation bias occurs because we are, for example, inclined to unduly favour evidence that supports our beliefs and dismiss evidence against them.
b) Confirmation bias occurs because we all are mostly irrational.
c) Confirmation bias occurs because too much evidence is available for us to sort through it all.
d) Confirmation bias occurs because we tend to spend time with people who share our opinions.
e) None of the above

3. Why is it rationally dangerous when the arguer has vested interests?
a) Because the arguer might try to use force instead of reason
b) Because the arguer may be attracted to a conclusion for the wrong reasons—because it benefits him and not because there are convincing premises
c) Because vests are not fashionable
d) Having vested interests isn’t rationally dangerous.
e) None of the above

4. When can illegitimate biases arise in arguments?
a) When arguers present arguments that do not fairly represent their own views or the views of their opponents
b) When arguers use italics too much when presenting their arguments
c) When arguers might have a vested interest
d) When arguers present arguments about their own children
e) None of the above

5. In the final analysis, how must the question of whether a particular argument reflects illegitimate biases be answered?
a) With a “yes” or a “no”
b) By carefully assessing the extent to which the arguer has fairly and accurately presented her own and her opponents’ points of view
c) By comparing it to our own beliefs and assessing to what extent the argument’s claims correspond to the beliefs that we hold
d) By looking at the argument’s opponents’ arguments to see if they contain illegitimate biases
e) None of the above

6. The danger of illegitimate bias is particularly strong in any situation in which an arguer has ________.
a) a high-interest investment
b) a vested interest
c) an increased curiosity
d) a sweatered interest
e) none of the above

7. In which of the following situations would we have the least reason to suspect presence of vested interests?
a) A soccer fan debating a referee’s call
b) A politician lobbying in favour of a company based in her riding
c) A cooking show host encouraging you to use butter in moderation
d) A local store encouraging you to shop locally
e) None of the above

8. What is the best approach to take when you know that an arguer has a vested interest?
a) You should treat his or her arguments with caution.
b) You should be more circumspect and careful to ask whether the argu¬ments are characterized by illegitimate biases and have fairly presented the issues that are to be discussed.
c) You should be aware that an arguer who has a vested interest in an issue may still offer strong premises for a conclusion.
d) All of the above
e) None of the above

9. ________ occurs when someone, usually in a professional situation, is in a position to make a decision that might unfairly provide them with important benefits.
a) A conflict of interest
b) An unfair advantage
c) A promotion
d) A case of embezzlement
e) All of the above

10. Slanting by omission is possibly most notable in ________.
a) children’s television programs
b) peer-reviewed scientific journals like the British Journal of Cancer
c) online game reviews
d) news reporting that promotes short accounts of a news story rather than in-depth analysis
e) none of the above
11. Slanting by distortion can be very subtle because it can be hard to find words that are entirely neutral and easy to use descriptions that lean one way or another. Which of the following words could be described as being entirely neutral?
a) Rebel
b) Teacher
c) Freedom of speech
d) All of the above
e) None of the above

12. In trying to determine whether arguments are affected by illegitimate biases, you may follow a three-step method: ________.
a) 1) Note vested interests; 2) Look for slanting; 3) Survey agreeing views.
b) 1) Note all potential interests; 2) Look for unbalance; 3) Survey agreeing views.
c) 1) Note vested interests; 2) Look for unbalance; 3) Survey opposing views.
d) 1) Note vested interests; 2) Look for slanting; 3) Survey opposing views.
e) None of the above

13. A good reasoner watches for the possibility that someone arguing has imposed a particular “slant” on the issues. Slanting by distortion or omission is a likely possibility in which of the following?
a) In newspaper and television news
b) In union and management reports
c) In political platforms
d) In attempts to promote “special interests” of one sort or another (milk producers, the dot-com industries, a particular religious perspective, a sports franchise, etc.).
e) All of the above

14. Slanting is particularly evident in propaganda, which the Oxford English Dictionary defines as “information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view.” Propagandists are willing to exaggerate in extreme ways that employ which of the following?
a) Self-serving analogies
b) Shifts of meaning in the use of key terms in the course of an argument
c) Controversial hidden premises
d) An aura of certainty that is often promoted by name-dropping and pseudo-technical jargon
e) All of the above

15. Which of the following is NOT one of the recommended approaches for detecting bias?
a) Note vested interests
b) Look for slanting
c) Survey opposing views
d) Survey supporting views
e) Admit the problems with difficult cases

True or False Questions

1. All biases are illegitimate.

2. Whatever their origin, and whether or not the arguer is aware of them, illegitimate biases lead to arguments that minimize, ignore, or dismiss evidence that invites a conclusion other than the one proposed.

3. Because someone with an illegitimate bias will usually misrepresent the views of their opponents, the attempt to identify these views can help us determine whether we are dealing with a case of problematic bias.

4. One only has vested interests when money is involved.

5. All arguments where the author has vested interests are weak arguments.

6. Though the legal and ethical issues that arise in such contexts are very complex, it can generally be said that someone who has a conflict of interest has a duty to declare it and to refrain from the decision it might interfere with.

7. The existence of a vested interest need not in itself show that an argument is mis¬taken.

8. Cases of bias can only be judged illegitimate through what is said, and not through what is unsaid.

9. The crux of slanting is the use of omission and distortion to create an illegitimate bias that insinuates a particular interpretation of the facts or issues that are reported and debated.

10. The extreme slanting that characterizes propaganda often makes the lack of objectivity transparent, rendering arguments very con¬vincing.

11. An argument will not be influenced by bias if it is not obvious that it is slanted.

12. Deciding whether an argument is illegitimately biased may, in some cases, depend on an examination of arguments forwarded by those who have opposing points of view.

13. In dealing with many arguments, there is no need to survey opposing views, which can be a long and laborious task.

14. Surveying opposing views is rarely required, even if there is good reason to think that bias may be a problem.

15. In our attempt to be critical thinkers who assess the evidence and arguments we come across carefully, it is important to always keep in mind the limits of this evidence and the possibility that it might be biased.

16. It is appropriate to feel strongly about some things, but strong claims need to be backed by convincing arguments, and you must be cautious of overstatement and terms that colour your claims in a way that is slanted in favour of your own view.

17. The most convincing argument is one that recognizes and fairly states opposing points of view and then deals adequately with the issues that they raise.

Short Answer Questions

1. What are illegitimate biases? Why are they problematic?

2. When can we say that a person has “vested interests”? Why is that problematic?

3. Why are cases of conflict of interest potentially problematic?

4. What is a common feature in cases of illegitimate bias?

5. What is slanting by omission?

6. What is slanting by distortion?

7. When assessing an argument, when is it important to consider the argument’s opponents and their arguments?

 

Short Answer Questions

1. All of us rely on our commitments and beliefs when we formulate our opinions. Problems arise only when our inclinations illegitimately influence the way we support our claims or interfere with our ability to listen to the reasons that others advance. In such cases, we may be said to have illegitimate biases. Good reasoners work hard to maintain a perspective that is not characterized by biases of this sort. We need to be wary of illegitimate biases, especially our own, for all of us have a natural tendency to favour some positions over others. (pp. 28–29)

2. We say someone has a “vested interest” when he stands to benefit in some significant form if he and other arguers see issues in a particular way. In such circumstances, an arguer may be attracted to a conclusion for the wrong reason—because it benefits him—and not because there are convincing premises that show that it is true. (p. 31)

3. In cases of conflict of interest, the issue is someone’s ability to act as an impartial decision maker in some circumstance in which one has a vested interest in the out¬come of the decision. In such contexts, the very possibility that one might be swayed by personal interest is enough to undermine one’s role as a decision maker, for this is a pos¬sibility that could cast doubt on the validity of the process by which the decision is made. (p. 35)

4. Illegitimate bias has a tendency to arise when arguers are dealing with matters that are of great importance to them—matters that pertain directly to themselves, their loved ones, their livelihood, or their cherished beliefs and convictions. Illegitimate biases are common in these contexts because they are contexts in which it is difficult to weigh the evidence dispassionately. (p. 36)

5. Slanting by omission occurs when anyone who describes a situa¬tion must select particular facts and issues to emphasize. Given that time and space are limited, it is unavoidable that other facts or issues must be summarized or ignored entirely. In the process of deciding what will and will not be reported and emphasized, it is relatively easy for an arguer to report those facts and details that favour the impres¬sion they wish to create. In the process, the arguer can downplay or leave out altogether those facts that suggest an alternative conclusion. The arguer does present “nothing but the truth” but fails to give “the whole truth” by avoiding aspects of the situation that may raise doubts about their perspective. (p. 36)

6. Slanting by distortion occurs when one describes or exaggerates or colours the facts that one is reporting in a manner that enhances an impression one wishes to create. A newspaper reporter or editor can, for example, twist the facts that they report by using terms with suggestive overtones in place of words that are neutral and descriptive; by inserting insinuating phrases; or by using headlines, the position on a page, or accompanying illustrations to foster the perspective that they favour. (p. 38)

7. Especially when assessing an arguer’s attempt to provide a comprehensive overview of some issue or concern, it is import¬ant to see what those with opposing views maintain, for this is the only way we can be sure that the comprehensive overview is fair to them and their arguments. (p. 40)